Unfortunately it is often happens that a print-oriented community wrongly expects that the oral communicators in his or her audience will understand logical, analytical, and abstract ways of thinking, or he expects that sermons and radio programs designed for a print-oriented audience can be translated and used effectively with an oral audience. But this is not usually the case. (Rick Brown, 2004)

Brown’s article highlights the lack of understanding and concern for oral communicators in cross-cultural ministry.  What is true in the field is also reflected in theological education in the West in which a significantly large proportion of the student body is represented by oral learners.

During one of our faculty forums we talked about the article by Dr. Jay Moon, “Understanding Oral Learners,” a research project focusing on the learning preference of seminary students of various cultural backgrounds. The study actually shows that “the slight majority of contemporary seminary students studied are oral learners” (Moon 2012). This immediately became a heated topic for discussion among faculty members as it was closely related to the issues that needed to be addressed here at WCIU. How could we best serve our students who come from oral learning tradition and empower them to bring wholeness and human flourishing to their own communities? This interest led to our decision to sponsor a Winter Institute on the topic on Feb. 11, 2013, when key advocates in the field of Orality, Dr. Jay Moon of Sioux Falls Seminary, Dr. Bill Bjoraker of William Carey International University, and Dr. Tom Steffen of Biola University shared perspectives on oral learners as well as conducted a workshop to engage more closely in their relevancy to theological education.

You will be able to read in this issue a paper by Jay Moon on the Winter Institute on Theological Education for Oral Learners, detailing some of the outcomes of the survey and the workshop. Some of the other papers in this issue include:

• “The Case and Call for Oral Bibles: A Key Component in Completing the Great Commission” by Rick Leatherwood
• “Objections and Benefits of an Oral Strategy for Bible study and Teaching” by Larry Dinkins
• “The “People of the Book” are the People of the Story: Storytelling in Contemporary Jewish Ministry” by Bill Bjoraker

Through the publication of this issue, we invite readers, especially our faculty, students, and alumni out there serving among oral learners/communicators, to reflect on issues related to theological education for oral learners, including some of the following:

• how oral learners learn
• how we can affirm and empower oral learners
• how we can adapt our curriculum for oral learners
• what assessment tools we can develop to facilitate oral learners

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At the recent Ralph D. Winter Lectureship, keynote speaker Greg Boyd set the tone for the two day conference by explaining: “in this world people experience nightmares from which they cannot escape.” No one would deny that our world is a world of unthinkable evil. But Boyd’s purpose during his lectures was to remind us that we can hold on to God’s beauty as revealed on the cross if we understand that evil originates from some source other than God. The point is to distance God’s character from all the garbage that goes on in this fallen world.

Those who disagree with Boyd’s premise would say that God’s character is all good even though he wills evil for some greater good. But Greg pointed out that ordinarily you will know a person’s character by what they will. If the holocaust or kidnapped children is God’s will, that reflects on his character. If you associate evil with God’s character you will push him away precisely when you need him most.

Throughout the conference, in fact throughout his most recent sermons, blogs and vlogs at reknew.org and in his latest writings, Boyd continually repeats the refrain, “In the person of Jesus Christ, God reveals himself to be a self-sacrificing, enemy-loving, beautiful God.”

Resignation vs. Revolt
Boyd explained that in church history the goal of western Christian piety was to embrace calmly what they could not change, a theology of resignation. Yet, the New Testament calls us to a piety of revolt. The Lord’s Prayer presupposes that God’s will is NOT being done on earth as it is in heaven, so we are to pray that it will be. That calls for a theology of revolt.

In this article, the author wonders what professors are doing to seminary students. Are they assisting in the process of fulfilling the calling that students were created by God to fulfill OR are they asking them to adjust to the professor’s print methods of assessment, like forcing a duck to walk on land? Grades send signals that students respond to. Perhaps good grades simply indicate how well students adjust to the professors’ assessment methods instead of assessing how well students are learning and being transformed.

The author explores what seminary professors can do to encourage oral learners to excel in their natural learning environment and style. Where would they start? What are some of the underlying issues involved here?

Click here to read the full article of Jay Moon’s “Encouraging Ducks to Swim: Suggestions for Seminary Professors Teaching Oral Learners.”

After participating in over thirty orality/storytelling workshops in the last few years ,the author became accustomed to a general skittishness that many people have concerning Bible story telling. Since he consistently encounters objections to oral strategies, he thought it would be helpful to address for our readers some of the main concerns that are voiced and balance those concerns with the major benefits. In this article, he will go through many common objections to an oral strategy, and then present some benefits to this strategy as well.

Click here to download the full article by Larry Dinkins “Objections and Benefits of an Oral Strategy”

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Jesus was literate. But He knew the vast majority of the people listening to him were not literate. So He did not speak to the people in abstract terms. He taught them through storytelling. He taught them through the concrete stories of fishing and farming, vineyard owners and laborers, merchants, pearls, hidden treasure, wheat, tares, nets, tax collectors and Pharisees. Jesus was the master storyteller whether it was about a moneylender and his debtors, a rich man and a beggar, two sons, an unjust steward, and on and on. Even when Jesus talked to a religious expert, someone who was obviously literate and could quote the Scriptures, Jesus told the expert of the law the story about the Good Samaritan. Nothing too abstract here- a Levite, a priest, a Samaritan, robbers, an inn keeper, two coins. Where did this story come from? It came from the mind of Jesus, as He graciously gave the expert in the law the direction he needed to leave his racial prejudice and religious hypocrisy behind and “go and do” as the Samaritan had done.

But more than just storytelling is needed.  A few stories here, a few stories there, people get excited . . . and then time passes. Where is the continuity and sustainability needed to make disciples? where is the big picture that provides the needed continuity and sustainability?  It is in making an oral Bible. In this article, the author explores the importance of Oral Bibles for oral learners to move forward with their faith and ministry.

Click here to read the full article of Rick Leatherwood’s “The Case and Call for Oral Bibles.”

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At the conclusion of the Fall Feasts of Israel, the Jewish High Holy Days, is the feast of Simchat Torah (“Rejoicing in the Law”), when traditional and Orthodox Jews passionately celebrate the gift of God’s Word. To witness the exuberant dancing and singing while carrying the adorned Torah Scroll at the Western Wall in Jerusalem shames the paltry expression of devotion to the Word that characterizes most of us late moderns.

Yet it is clear that the Word of God is in three forms: 1) The Living Word (the “Memra” in Hebrew; or “Logos” in Greek), 2) The Written Word (the final authority and judge for all faith and life), and 3) The Oralized Word (Scripture brought to life through human communicators, words made flesh).

This article will highlight the vital role of oralized Word, for our moment in history, and especially for Jewish ministry. The Hebraic tradition, though holistic, involves the hearing ear more than the distancing
eye. The article will explore the various ways an understanding of oral learning methods is essential for working for, and with, the Jewish people.

Click here to read the full article “The “People of the Book” are the People of the Story: Storytelling in Contemporary Jewish Ministry”

After a fair amount of planning and preparation, the 2013 Ralph D. Winter Lectureship is now complete. I’m happy to report that the event exceeded my expectations in many important ways. I don’t think it’s an exaggeration to say that it was a resounding success. On Thursday evening (April 25), Greg Boyd shared his spiritual pilgrimage, including a dramatic encounter with a demon possessed woman that was the genesis of what would become his warfare worldview. On Friday (April 26) Greg explored this worldview from theological, biblical and philosophical standpoints. After each of his three lectures a panel of experts discussed his views. In some cases these panelists reinforced Greg’s views. In other cases they refuted his views, which resulted in two lively debates.  The audience response was overwhelmingly positive and many new relationships and conversations started. Stay tuned to both Roberta Winter Institute and WCIDJ for more reports including photos, videos and reflections from those who attended the event.
Brian Lowther
Coordinator, 2013 Ralph D. Winter Lectureship

Brad Cole of godscharacter.com, Brian Lowther and Greg Boyd. Photo courtesy of Darrell Dorr.

Greg Boyd speaking on April 26,2013. Photo courtesy of Greg Parsons.

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By Moses Ndahiro

Public policy is too important to leave in the hands of non-believers. The church whose mission is holistic transformation has to be educated on the significance of this because some church leaders have been influential in discouraging believers from getting involved in politics and the shaping of public policy. The church has been limited in its ability to minister when new policies contradict the word of God and wrongfully decided to separate itself from the government instead of educating congregations and encouraging members to go to school, join universities and governments to change these policies.  The four foundational pillars that define public policy according to Regier are values, data, credible spokespersons and the implementation of these policies; two of these are mainly influenced by religions - values and credible spokespersons. This is where the church can excel but unfortunately often retreats into the safety of their sanctuaries.

It is important to note that it is not necessarily the church as institution that has to respond but followers of Christ who must be willing to get involved in public debates and put in the effort to get the necessary education so that they can qualify for influential positions in government and other public offices. 

Policies are made and implemented by people who come with different worldviews based on their faith, environment and culture.  In post independent Africa, Sir Abubaka Balewa (the Former Prime Minister of Nigeria) during the 1959 debate for a motion on independence said that “I am confident that when we have our own citizenship, our own national flag, our own national anthem, we shall find the flame of national unity burning bright and strong.” How factual was this?  Just recently Kenya has been having presidential elections but it was more of the Kikuyu against Luos and the country is now split right in the middle because of tribal and economic differences. In Uganda it is the Banyakole against Baganda; Nigeria it is the Muslims against Christians.

When the Belgian government announced a programme of political reform in DRC, in January 1959, more than fifty-three political groups were officially registered by November 1959. By January 1960, the number reached one hundred and twenty political groups. Almost every party sprang from tribal origins. We have leaders who are high on rhetoric but shallow on administration and execution. They also have low moral standards in conduct and performance and you can say that there’s a lack of sound and strategic balance between politics and economic development. This has made our public policy making no more than ethnic entrepreneurship and a route to power and wealth. The kind and level of education, spiritual, race and tribal issues have been a major hindrance towards the formation of sound policies in Africa for years. What has been the church’s contribution? We need to build disciples/people who can impart all the spheres of society and who will bring a worldview that reflect justice, honesty and truth in all practices.

Instead of being guided by Judeo–Christian values, human rights, international regulations, systems and policies are determined by a few, who are often tainted by ethnic and xenophobic perspectives. The result is a lack of justice and neglect of the rights of many, especially Christians.

This will not change until Christians are willing to aspire to leadership positions and apply the discipline and patience necessary that the situation will change.  But the pathway to walk where they walk and get into their shoes to be effective burden bearers is a lonesome and treacherous way.  And as long as Christians, and the church in general, continue to promote the unbiblical dichotomy of physical versus spiritual, the situation is not likely to change.

Our Savior was comfortable in heaven and did not have to be bothered about us suffering here on earth but he came, lived, walked and shared meals with us. He also said, “As the Father has sent me, so send I you.” That means, like him, we too should not only look out to our own interest but also the interests of others (Philippians 2.) God invites us on this journey with Him, to share the love He has for all people and, in partnership with Him, to lead others to reconciliation with God, self, neighbor and creation.  Then we will truly witness community transformation.

As Regier clearly puts it, “We place our trust in a sovereign God who rules over men and nations, and commands us to be involved”. This what I have committed my life to and what God calls us all to.

By David Williams

In very broad terms, as a result of WWII the US became involved in a substantial way with rebuilding Europe (the Marshall Plan) and reshaping multi-national institutions (founding of the UN, IMF, World Bank).  In this same period there also arose a far greater willingness to accept racial and cultural diversity in response to the Nazi doctrine of race-based discrimination.  This in turn led to the formation of a host of newly independent nation states.

However, with the political and military fall-out of the Vietnam War the US went through a period spanning at least a couple of decades where they were reluctant to involve themselves in overseas conflicts.

US foreign policy over this period seemed to invoke on a regular basis the saying of James A Baker, that “We don’t have a dog in this fight” in order to justify non-intervention. This comment was made famous in relation to Bosnia, but applied equally to other conflicts, such as Algeria, where the US and its western allies did not see that they had any strategic interest.

The down-side of this approach was brought home forcefully with the disaster of 9/11, which has become one of the most defining moments of recent history. What this revealed was that in a number of weak states – Yemen, Sudan, Somalia, Uzbekistan and some surrounding countries, the Philippines to a lesser extent – the failure to support weak governments in order to maintain democratic institutions and the rule of law had permitted terrorist organizations and networks to create an effective infrastructure to recruit, train and launch attacks.

If such an analysis is accepted, then it could be argued that a lack of constructive engagement with these weak states in an attempt to resolve conflict, strengthen the institutions of a fully functioning economy and improve the standard of living of their citizens has contributed to a situation where hostile interests have obtained a foothold within these states and are thereby able to co-ordinate hostilities. In other words we did have a dog, but we just didn’t see it.

Foreign policy is largely determined by the perceived self-interest of the state.  In response, Regier’s concept of “kingdom-minded involvement in business and government” with the aim of “good governance” seeks to adopt an objective, value-based standard that would pursue a more equitable world based on common core moral values.  The effect of such an approach is likely to be a more safe and secure world.

On the level of the individual rather than the state, the apostle James says, “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress.” (Jas 1:27). This requirement of positive virtue as an integral part of a living faith has become global, in that we are now able to reach out to “orphans and widows” in the most disastrous parts of the world, such as the Sudan, through contributions to different government and private charities.

One could perhaps argue that the wise provision of aid by both governments and private charities is a countervailing influence that already, in part, reflects the value system Regier promotes.

Larry Dinkins, PhD. came to Christ through Campus Crusade while attending the University of Oklahoma. After completing his Th.M. (1978) at Dallas Theological Seminary, he married Paula Robison. Later, they joined OMF International.

God had given Larry a life verse “For Ezra had devoted himself to the study and observance of the Law of the LORD, and to teaching its decrees and laws in Israel” (Ezra 7:10).  Larry was convinced his biblical training could be used to teach God’s “decrees and laws” in Thailand.

After six years of church planting in Central Thailand, Larry transitioned to the Bangkok Bible Seminary and served as Academic Dean and Dean of the Seminary. In 1995, he finished a PhD at Biola University and they moved to North Thailand to start a Theological Education by Extension (TEE) program. Larry served as founding director of the Chiang Mai Theological Seminary in 2000.

A Story of a Paradigm Shift

Larry is grateful for the solid foundation in Biblical studies and pastoral theology he received at DTS. However, his journey and God’s providence would lead him to a major paradigm shift in communicating the Scriptures and implementing his life verse (Ezra 7:10). In teaching the Bible, Larry realized his extremely literate, theological higher education, rightly prized in the Western world, was not as effective with the preferred oral learners he encountered in Thailand. He had a growing conviction that he needed to contextualize his teaching methods.

While in California, Larry learned of a ministry called Simply the Story (STS) from a Thai pastor who encouraged him to attend. Larry’s doctorate centered on narratives and since it sounded like an easy course he traveled to the week long venue. STS proved to be a bit shocking since as an oral method; no note taking, paper or pens are allowed. Printed Bibles are used only to absorb the Bible stories, which are told orally. Larry told a story for evaluation after the workshop. Long dependent on print methods and falling back into his default preaching mode, Larry did not do so well. STS director, Dorothy Miller, flunked him. He was aghast! He thought, “I am Reverend Doctor Larry Dinkins, PhD. She can’t flunk me!”

Larry went home and sulkily told Paula what had happened. She said, “That’s good for you, Larry! ... You have always gotten high grades in all your education. This humbles you and gives you a challenge.” His dear Paula’s insight was the pivotal point in a major shift in Larry’s ministry. He looked deeply into the emerging field of orality, storytelling and the use of oral strategies to reach oral learners. Most of the world’s population are oral learners; up to 80% prefer to learn through story and oral means, not through printed media. This certainly includes the vast majority of the Thai people, to whom Larry is called.

Larry learned quickly the new paradigm of orality, the dynamics of oral communication, and oral strategies in ministry. The simple fact that Jesus used stories and questions as his primary teaching method, and that the Bible is 75% in the narrative genre took on new meaning. He attended several more STS workshops and improved his skills of inductive Bible study, oral style; teaching Scripture through storytelling and leading discussions that make transformative life applications, for literate and non-literate alike.

Larry asked many Christians if they could accurately recite even one Bible story by heart. Virtually none of them could. Larry realized there are many American pastors who can gain from oral strategies, especially now that younger Americans are conditioned through the digital and electronic age to get their information and learn by other means than reading print. Everyone is hard-wired for stories—young and old, educated and non-educated, every culture and nation.

I can attest to Larry’s passion and effectiveness as an “evangelist” for storytelling and orality. I am a PhD and am a minister to Jewish people who are a very literate people. When Larry first told me of his paradigm shift, I thought “That’s great for you, Larry! ... you work among non-literate oral learners. I work among educated Jewish people.” But it did not take me long to reflect on the fact that there is a great storytelling tradition in Judaism and that the Old Testament stories would resonate with them, the stories are the stories of their people. Long story short— I have been using storytelling in Jewish ministry, with good results, since Larry’s effective input in during those days in 2008. I credit Larry with being a divine contact and mentor in my life, God used him to greatly enhance and transform my ministry. Highlights of my ministry since have been in team teaching with Larry in storytelling training in several contexts.

A succinct summary of much of the philosophy of education underlying oral strategies in the communication of Scripture that Larry advocates is contained in this recent quote,

“Propositional preaching effects some changes (mainly cognitive)...but storytelling seems to put oral people in a mode to receive “major” changes because stories impact holistically (head, heart, gut) and allows the Holy Spirit to enter at more entry points than just the head.”  (Larry Dinkins, Newsletter from Thailand, 2012).

Storytelling in Thailand and around the world satisfies Larry’s “longings as nothing else can do”…except for finally meeting the One about whom all the stories are finally about.

STS has a website plus a free downloadable handout.* Larry’s two part video presentation is under the title:  “DTS grad.”

*(STS Handbook: Exploring Scripture Through Discussion, Listening and Responding). Click under “uses/users” then click “academic” on this site to see more information on academicians that are using STS. The Shift to Oral Strategies

See Bill Bjoraker’s video for an example of storying.

Today’s post is excerpted from the article “Communicating God’s Message in an Oral Culture” by Rick Brown, originally published in IJFM, issue 21:3 Fall 2004. It gives a helpful overview into the differences between print and oral cultures, a great foundation for the issue coming out soon!

It is only natural for us to bring to our work the bias of our own ways of thinking, learning, and communicating. But unless we can adapt our communications to our audience, we will limit our audience to those who think as we do. The people we want to reach, however, include many for whom reading is not an important feature of everyday life. In fact, they prefer oral modes of communication. Many are non-readers who are more at home with oral communication methods. Research and experiments over the last two decades have shown that oral communicators learn best when these methods are used.

Oral communicators learn and retain information differently from print communicators

So how do people think and learn in oral cultures? It may help to highlight the differences between the two types of cultures, as researched by Ong [in his book Orality and Literacy]. Oral communicators learn by hearing, while print communicators learn by seeing and reading. Oral communicators think and talk about events, not words. They “use stories of human action to store, organize, and communicate much of what they know.” They learn by watching and imitating, by listening and repeating. Memorizing is easy for them. They memorize things handing down from the past; proverbs, stories, sayings and songs.

Print communicators, on the other hand, think and talk about words, concepts and principles. They learn by reading, studying, classifying, comparing and analyzing. They are poor at memorizing and need to look things up in books and write them down in notebooks.

Oral communicators learn from real-life, people-oriented events

Oral communicators learn information by relating it to real or imagined events in human life. They think and talk about events and people, seeing these in their nature, familiar context. Genealogies matter to them because they set real people in the stream of history. Print communicators, on the other hand, learn information as abstract principles, with events added as examples. They can talk or write objectively about facts, thoughts and feelings, using abstract terms, and they can describe the history of an idea or ideology. They like lists, but they pay little attention to genealogies.

Non-narrative teaching is usually placed within stories

Oral communicators reason from real-life experience. When seeking to convey ideas or influence conduct, they normally tell stories about events that illustrate the point being made. Print communicators, on the other hand, build their arguments logically, using analysis and explanation. Lectures and sermons are generally organized in a logically progression of thoughts that could fit in an outline. In addition to stories, oral communicators relate well to proverbs, poetry, and parables as long as they relate to real life.

Dialogue and drama are highly valued

Oral communicators tend to communicate in groups, and they learn through interacting with other people. They cannot think about something for very long without discussing it with others. By contrast, print communicators tend to communicate one-to-one. They can learn on their own, thinking about something for a long time while reading or making notes.

How the bible is ideally suited for oral communicators

Most of the bible is set among among oral peoples. The record of the scriptures themselves indicate that most were transmitted orally before being written. In the gospels, God has “spoken to use through his son” (Heb 1:2). Jesus does not seem to have written any of his message, but rather committed them to the memory of his disciples. There is little to indicate that peter was literate, so we can believe he was a good memorizer of what Jesus said. Paul was literate, but he seems to have orally dictated many of his letters. They were intended to be read out loud in the churches, as was the revelation of John.

Rather than give a system of theology, the bible describes the characteristics of god and man through a wealth of narrative “pictures”; it also presents the great drama of salvation, and it uses numerous symbols and symbolic actions, such as baptism, the breaking of bread, the cross, etc. (in fact, god’s greatest revelation is not written or even verbal, but is presented in the life of Christ himself, who is the visible picture of the invisible God.) Steffen (1996), in his book on the advantages of storying the bible, notes that the bible is 75% narrative, 15% poetry, and only 10% “thought-organized.” 

Conclusion

Print oriented communicators think, learn and communicate in ways that are different from oral communicators. In developing ways to minister to an audience of oral communicators, we need to be aware of our print-oriented bias and seek to make the presentation suitable for an oral culture.

Abstract:

Self-directed learning is an important feature of WCIU’s MA Program in International Development. WCIU as an institution is interested in overcoming those hindrances that block the demonstration, spread and growth of God’s Kingdom, as our mission statement indicates: “Preparing men and women to discover and address the roots of human problems around the world.” We want graduates and current students of WCIU to diagnose and solve real problems of societies so that those societies may better reflect God’s glory and carry out His purposes in the world. We intend self-directed learners to serve the purposes of Kingdom-oriented International Development and their sponsoring NGO’s.

This article is by no means a survey of self-directed learning. Some important topics in the field of self-directed learning are not mentioned at all, while the topics we do discuss are done so only in an abbreviated manner. The purpose of this article, then, is not to tell students all they need to know about self-directed learning, but to increase their competence as self-directed learners by highlighting some important features of it. Becoming better self-directed learners will also facilitate students to serve better the purposes and goals of their sponsoring NGO’s or future employer, in addition to increasing the likelihood that they will succeed in their studies.

We first set self-directed learning in the context of Kingdom-oriented International Development, followed by a treatment of its importance for the MA Program at WCIU. After discussing certain misunderstandings of what self-directed learning is, we contrast it with teacher-directed learning. We identify certain important practices and habits of mind critical to self-directed learning, and briefly describe typical stages that students go through on their way to becoming self-directed learners.

Click here to download “Introduction to Self-Directed Learning.”

Just recently, the importance of gaining familiarity with social networking in the context of theological education and discipleship struck me, and so I became active on Twitter and started a blog. (Check out my blog at biblethoughtstoday.blogspot.com.) After a time of resisting the current cultural change that is occurring thanks to the information age, I have decided to embrace it and ride the wave rather than get left behind on the surf. The realization of the need to get hooked into social networking at some level occurred as I taught traditional undergraduate students at a nearby Christian university where the rapid cultural shift based on portable information technology that is currently underway was powerfully brought home to me.

Image source: Edudemic

It is clear to me that education needs to become fluent in social networking to maintain its impact and relevance in the post-literate culture that is emerging. As educators striving to make an impact on our emerging global culture, we need to tweet, post blogs, develop a presence on facebook, and so forth. This requires not only developing basic fluency in these media, but also a more aggressive, entrepreneurial spirit in order to compete with a global village of voices that are making use of these platforms, as well. Not only are these positive voices, but also destructive.

This is a paradigm shift in education, is it a new ministry frontier, as well?

In Slimbach’s article he says that Hunter challenges the McGavran mantra—
“transformed people inevitably transform society”—that continues to provide a conversionist and church-based grounding to much evangelical development practice. He then goes on to say:  If McGavran were empirically correct, we would expect Nairobi, Manila, and Port-au-Prince to be the closest equivalents to the kingdom of God on earth. What church saturated but despairing cities prove is just the opposite: that social structure inevitably transforms persons (and their churches)!

I personally agree with McGavran’s phrase that “transformed people do transform society,” as long as one understands that this kind of transformation happens over a long period of time.

Take for example the recent studies in the Atlas of Global Christianity edited by Todd M. Johnstone & Kenneth R. Ross.  They clearly indicate that in the last one hundred years, the epicenters of Christianity have shifted from Western countries, (which are much more affluent in material wealth) to “poor” countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia.  Based on such studies, someone else could very well argue that Nairobi, Manila and Port-au Prince are the closest equivalents to the Kingdom of God on earth, in spite of the poverty and other challenges.

(Image credit: flickr)

Here is another example why I think McGavran’s mantra is right, when transformation is understood to happen over a longer period of time.  I have recently spent two months in Uganda and I had the privilege to attend services at the Natete Church of Uganda, near the place where Alexander Mackay, the first missionary to Uganda lived. The Church was celebrating 100 years of existence and 130 years of Christianity in Uganda. 

There was no doubt in the minds of the congregation that their country has moved from being a pagan country (Read Alexander Mackay amazing biography) to being one of the leading Christian countries in the world.  For example, the Church of Uganda and most Churches in Africa and Asia are playing a leading role against the issue of same sex marriage.  Read Genesis 19 about Sodom and Gomorrah and consider whether there could be some application for the situation today.  Is God using such Churches in places like Kampala, Nairobi and Manila?

The 130 years of Christianity celebrations were attended by the Vice President of the Republic of Uganda, various Government ministers, Members of Parliament and thousands of ordinary Ugandan Christians from all walks of life. 

As you may know, the missionaries to Uganda and the Church established numerous hospitals such as Mengo, Rubaga, Nsabya; numerous Christian schools such as Gayaza, Buddo, Mbarara High School and Nyakasura School to name only a few which have trained generations of Ugandan leaders in Government, NGOs and the Private sector.  One is therefore inclined to think that “transformed people inevitably transform society.” 

Slimbach further argues in his article that when it comes to anything resembling deep community change, the role of the local church is largely limited to being an incubator for small-scale “seed projects” where individual members respond to concrete needs by organizing church (vs. community) resources to meet them. Again, this is because the majority of rural and urban poor churches are simply ill prepared in terms of specialized knowledge, skills, and political clout to organize entire communities, much less develops and sustains projects of any significant scale and influence. The institutional church shines brightest when it develops the spiritual capital of emerging leaders, and then encourages them to deploy their hope, passion, and values in non-church structures (specialized “sodality” agencies) whose “sphere” it is to understand how to lay sewage lines, establish high-quality schools and health clinics, administer savings co-ops, and the like.

In my edited book, International Development from a Kingdom Perspective, I point out that WCIU serves a fairly well-defined constituency of non-governmental Organizations (NGOs).  I also point out that all WCIU students are required to study the historical, social, cultural, religious, educational, economic, technical, and political matrix in which they work.  WCIU defines International Development as an integrated academic field involving all the different disciplines mentioned above.

Given this holistic/integrated understanding of International Development, arguments like “when it comes to anything resembling deep community change, the role of the local church is largely limited to being an incubator for small-scale “seed projects” where individual members respond to concrete needs by organizing Church (vs. community) resources to meet them” indeed apply to “small-scale” economic development which is only a part of WCIU’s definition of “international development.” 

As documented in books like Michael Maren’s The Road to Hell, Graham Hancock’s Lords of Poverty, and Thea Hilhorst’s The Real World of NGOs, national NGO leaders often learn from their foreign counterparts how to pose children for photographs, “handle” donors, create websites and brochures… and make a good living.

One does unfortunately hear a lot more negative generalizations and cynicism concerning the Church and NGOs in Africa, and nothing much about so many others which are doing a commendable work in difficult circumstances.  I have not yet read Dorothea and Thea Hilhorst’s book: The real world of NGOs but I hope they offer an objective and balanced view of the situation. 

Politically, local churches can evidence an aggressive religious conservatism. This is particularly evident among many Pentecostal churches serving the urban poor. Pentecostal joy can and often is a revolutionary manifestation of the kingdom of God in places of breathtaking poverty and dispossession. And many Pentecostal slum dwellers do populate progressive urban social movements like the Homeless Workers Movement in Brazil. Nevertheless, many of their leaders are Benny Hinn and Joel Osteen wannabes, espousing a “name-it-and-claim it” gospel that promises the good life to all who would “seed” the “man of God” their money or property. The mimicking of wealthy American televangelists is usually coupled with a general hostility toward science, along with an eagerness to gain status and legitimacy within mainstream power structures. Quantitative measures of success—big crowds, converts, and resplendent buildings—displace quality-of-life issues related to poverty, official corruption, and state-sponsored violence.

Pentecostal churches are the fastest growing in the world today, especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America and I think one of the reasons is because young people who are joining them in big numbers, prefer preachers (including those mentioned in Slimbach’s article above) who have more uplifting messages.  Again, there have been too much negative generalizations and cynicism against them which do not seem to stop their growth.  On the contrary!  They thrive on sermons close to Apostle Paul’s teaching in Philippians 4:8-9: 

8 Finally, brothers and sisters, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy—think about such things. 9 Whatever you have learned or received or heard from me, or seen in me—put it into practice. And the God of peace will be with you.

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Part 5: How do we use Old Testament Law? John Rogerson’s Method

This is the fifth part of a five-part blog for WCIDJ involving the use of the Old Testament’s legal material in transformational development. Today, it explores method in interpreting Old Testament Law for transformational development. It concentrates on the method of John Rogerson, a British Old Testament theologian and ethicist. 

So far, this series has been quite general and has roughly outlined the role that the legal material of the Pentateuch played in the life of Israelite and Jewish communities, and has drawn some implications for some of the goals of development work. This begs the question concerning how the specific, time and culture bound, specific legal material that makes up the whole of the Pentateuch’s legal material is used in development work. Again, I draw upon the categories of Old Testament ethics in order to suggest an answer to the question.

John Rogerson’s method in his book, Theory and Practice of Old Testament Ethics, involves the discovery and use “of imperatives of redemption” and “structures of grace.” Rogerson defines an “imperative of redemption” as, “a reason for commanding a particular action that is grounded in what God has graciously done in redemption.” He defines a “structure of grace” as “a social arrangement that is meant to work our graciousness in practical terms, so that both those who administer it and those who benefit it are aware of the graciousness implied.”^[1]

Rogerson’s “imperatives of redemption” and “structures of grace” work in tandem. An example of an imperative of redemption is Deuteronomy 15:14b-15,

Give to him as the LORD your God has blessed you. Remember that you were slaves in Egypt and the LORD your God redeemed you. That is why I give you this command today.

This command is given in the context of a law regarding providing liberally for a Hebrew slave when the slave leaves a master’s service after his limited term of service ends,

If a fellow Hebrew, a man or a woman, sells himself to you and serves you six years, in the seventh year you must let him go free.  And when you release him, do not send him away empty-handed. Supply him liberally from your flock, your threshing floor and your winepress. (Deuteronomy 15:12-14a)

The structure of grace, which provides for the release from a limited period of slavery used to settle debts, is rooted in the fact that the Israelite who purchased the Hebrew slave is descendant of a people who were slaves in Egypt. Because the master’s ancestors, and hence the master, has experienced the pain of slavery, and been redeemed from it by God, the master should be generous with the slave(s) that he has. The law regarding the release of slaves in Deuteronomy and Leviticus 25 ^[2] and the law of Jubilee in which sold land reverts back to its original owners, and thus a family’s patrimony and means of independent livelihood is restored (Lev 25) is grounded in the fact that since Israel was redeemed by God from Egypt, the Israelites are God’s servants and should not be treated as another’s slaves. The idea that the Israelites were slaves in Egypt that God redeemed is the motive force, or “imperative of redemption” behind the laws in Deuteronomy 15 and Leviticus 25 regarding the freeing and generous treatment of Hebrew slaves and the return of a family’s ancestral land in the year of Jubilee.^[3]

The limited scope of the areas of life covered in the legal material of the Pentateuch means that rather than providing a comprehensive rule for every area of Israelite life, they were meant to portray the character of the LORD, and the type of society that Israel had to be to be pleasing to the LORD. The point of the law regarding slaves in Deuteronomy, Leviticus and the Book of the Covenant in Exodus is that ideally slavery should not exist in Israel,^[4] and the law of the Kinsman redeemer that purchases a family member out of debt slavery or a piece of land that has been sold to settle debts reinforces this picture.^[5]

The legal material in the Pentateuch paints a picture of the gracious character of God, and the type of society that Israel was to be to please God and live with God in their midst. This material pointed Israel God-ward, and was to transform them into a people of God. The material in the Pentateuch regarding slavery accepts that there is slavery in Israel, but points to the ideal that there should not be, and provides mechanisms to remove slavery from Israel grounded in God’s gracious act of delivering Israel from slavery. In cultural contexts that differ from Iron Age Israel to a greater or lesser degree, the legal material does not provide culturally contextualized mechanisms to remove slavery from a society, but shows the character of the LORD, who demands that it is removed for God’s blessing and presence to be in a society. The imperative of redemption that God delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt shows the character of God that has also redeemed us in Christ Jesus from bondages that effect societies and peoples throughout the world on multiple levels. The imperative of redemption that God has redeemed us so we should strive for the redemption of others calls for the development structure of grace through which the character of our gracious God can be manifested through our different societies.

Bible Thoughts Today has briefly examined the legal material in the Pentateuch and has concluded that this material was promulgated to turn Israelite society God-ward, so that it becomes a society in which God could dwell and which God could bless. From this, it concluded that helping people find a way of life that God blesses and in which they could live in God’s presence should be a primary goal of Christian development work. This is rooted in pursuing the aims and priorities of God in public and private life. If this is the case, then Christian development work should be rooted in evangelism and discipleship first and foremost. We then briefly examined a method with which to apply the individual, concrete and culturally specific laws in the Pentateuch’s legal material to different societies. To this end, we lifted up Rogerson’s “imperatives of redemption” and “structures of grace” as a method with which to apply the individual laws of the Pentateuch to culturally different contexts.

We hope you have found this past week’s reflections on the use of the Old Testament Law in transformational development useful in stimulating thought concerning the use of the Bible in contemporary society. If you did, we ask you to mention Bible Thoughts Today and recommend it to your social networking circle. This next week, the discussion will be guided, but more open ended, as we turn to the use of the Bible in contemporary evangelical thought, starting off with a discussion of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments.
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          1. BACK TO POST Rogerson, J. W., and M. Daniel Carroll R. 2004. Theory and Practice in Old Testament Ethics. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004. eBook Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed July 25, 2011). 24-25
          2. BACK TO POST In Leviticus 25, the Hebrew slave is to be treated as a hired worker and is to be released in the Sabbath year
          3. BACK TO POST This imperative of redemption is not only used in Deut 15 and Lev 25, but in a number of places in the Pentateuch’s legal material.
          4. BACK TO POST Rogerson, 26.
          5. BACK TO POST This legal material is found in Lev 25.

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How do we use Old Testament Law? Part 4: Implications for Christian Development Work

This is the fourth part of a five-part blog for WCIDJ involving the use of the Old Testament’s legal material in transformational development.Today, it begins to explore the “so what” concerning the goal of Old Testament law in Israelite society. What does it teach us concerning what the aims of an intentionally Christian transformational development should be?

III. Implications for Christian Development Work

What is the take-away of this study in Old Testament law for Christian development? 1) It shows that the end goal of God’s giving a law to Israel was so that Israel would prosper materially and enjoy God’s presence in their midst. It shows the ethos and values of God in interaction with his people. God desires to bless and dwell with his people. If this is the end goal of God in the foundational documents of the Bible, helping people to live a life that God blesses in the presence of God should be the primary goal of Christian development work. 2) There is a way of life that God blesses, and this is rooted in pursuing the aims and priorities of God in public and private life. 3) An outgrowth of this is that evangelism and discipleship are necessary components of Christian development, as it seeks to develop a people motivated to live in a way that God blesses. Samuel Moffett speaks of evangelism as the leading partner in mission, in which evangelism restores the “vertical relationship” with God and secondarily our “horizontal relationship” with our fellow humans is restored.^[1] In a similar vein, Ronald Hesselgrave writes that evangelism is more important than social action because the eternal is more important than the temporal, but the two should not be separated in the overall mission of the church as witness to God’s Kingdom. He goes on to write that social concern is not merely a support to the church’s mission, but part of it.^[2]

What I am talking about when I mention that discipleship and evangelism are necessary components of Christian development is a bit different than Moffett’s and Hesselgrave’s comments, with which I am in full agreement. To live as God’s blessed people, and to experience God’s blessing involves a conversion of a culture Christward, in which components of the culture are turned toward Christ in faithful obedience to the Gospel.^[3] The legal codes in the Pentateuch were promulgated to turn Israel Godward, to convert the once Egyptian slaves into the people of God that live in covenant with their God, and experience the holistic blessing that such a relationship would bring. This discipleship and formation of the people of God was promulgated through the Levitical teaching of Torah, and through the maintenance and participation in the religious life of Israel (1 Chron 26; 2 Chron 34).^[4] The evangelism and discipleship of people is the equivalent of the Levitical promulgation of Torah and calling people into a relationship with God in Christ Jesus, turning a people Christward in obedience that is culturally informed. As God transforms a community, the blessing of God living in their midst through discipleship and worship is transformative.

Next week we will look at some method from John Rogerson, an Old Testament ethicist that deals with the interpretation and application of Old Testament legal material in our contemporary contexts.

Do you have questions, concerns, strong disagreements, or anything else to add to the discussion? Please respond by making a comment.

Here is a broad question for you. What should the relationship be between evangelism, discipleship and development work?

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          [1.] BACK TO POST Samuel H. Moffett, “Evangelism: The Leading Partner,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, 3rd Edition (Ralph Winter and Stephen Hawthorne, eds; Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1999) 575-577.
          [2.] BACK TO POST Ronald Hesselgrave, “The Mission of the Church as a Witness to the Kingdom,” (Unpublished Paper delivered at WCIU, March 11, 2010.
          [3.] BACK TO POSTAndrew Walls, “From Christendom to World Christianity,” in The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (Maryknoll, NY/Edinburgh: Orbis Books/T&T Clark, 2002), 67-71.
          [4.] BACK TO POSTPatrick D. Miller, The Religion of Ancient Israel (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2000) 173-74. I am well aware that through much of Israelite and Judean history, Torah was not promulgated as it should have been and the sacrificial system was corrupted. This levitical instruction and temple worship was the ideal.

This post is part of Beth Snodderly’s “Scripture as International Development” series. For some of her additional posts in this series, click here and here.

God wants his children to be known as peacemakers. Jesus is the Prince of Peace.

Greg Boyd wrote in a Sept. 2010 ReKnew blog that, “A number of scholars have argued that the whole point of the book of Revelation is to vindicate God’s sacrificial lamb-like way of overcoming evil. That is, God’s way of defeating evil by being willing to die, rather than conquer with violence, looks like it loses throughout history, but all will see that it triumphs in the end.”

One of these scholars is Sigve Tonstad, author of the book, Saving God’s Reputation. He points out that as a deceiver, “Satan wins support for his cause and programme by something other than what he truly represents. If this is the case, simple demolition of the deceiver will not suffice unless or until his true character has become manifest” (p. 129). If God were to simply demolish the devil, those who have lent their support toward the evil one by believing his lies would then continue to believe the lies about God’s character.

Erich Sauer (The King of the Earth, p. 73), writing after the violence of World War II, explained his view that Satan’s area of power had been granted to him legally before his fall. (“The whole world lies in the power of the evil one,” 1 John 5:19.) Sauer believes it is God’s plan to take back the rulership of the world from Satan in a way that is “legal” and that reflects God’s justice. This meant, according to Sauer, that God would have to take the rulership of the world back without force, through the free choices of human beings who have to decide for themselves which ruler to follow. This was obviously a big risk for God, as Gregory Boyd points out (Satan and the Problem of Evil, p. 86). By creating humans and putting them in charge of the world, God was setting up a counter Kingdom and throwing out a challenge to Satan. The serpent’s insinuation to Eve was Satan’s initially successful response to that challenge. But God struck back with a long-term plan, first mentioned in Genesis 3:15, to defeat the dark prince of this world and restore the world to what it was originally intended to be, under the rule of the Creator-King.

Satan has to wait until humans give him an opportunity to act (Trevor Ling, The Significance of Satan, p. 38). God likewise has chosen to limit himself to acting when intercessors and his obedient people pray, “let your kingdom come; let your will be done” (Matthew 6:10).

How do we use Old Testament Law? Part 3: What is the “Good” in the Pentateuch’s Legal Material?

This is the third part of a five-part blog for WCIDJ involving the use of the Old Testament’s legal material in transformational development. Previously, we provided our thesis, and the general program of our presentation. Then, we summarized the legal material in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, with a concentration on the blessings and the curses that are found appended to the legal material. Today, we posit an answer to the question concerning what is the “good” in the Pentateuch’s legal material. Our answer may surprise some of our readers.

II. What is “the Good” in the Pentateuch’s Legal Material?

What does the overall flow and content of the Pentateuch’s legal material, especially the blessings and the curses, have to say about the question, “what is the good?” It seems that the legal material, instead of being an end unto itself, has a goal, that Israel will have a prosperous life in the land that God has given them. Holiness through obedience to the law is to be seen as instrumental to the end of a blessed life with God. The believing Israelite looked beyond legal stipulation and obligation to a blessed life in communion with God.[1] In Leviticus 26, the LORD does not only promise deliverance from enemies and astounding productivity in the Land of Promise, but also promises,11 “I will put my dwelling place among you, and I will not abhor you. 12 I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be my people.” Obedience to the law provided prosperity to the Israelites, as well as God’s presence in their midst.

Thank you for reading our blog today. Please recommend the WCIDJ blog to others if you find the blog helpful to you, and begin a fruitful discussion by posting a comment. God bless.
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[1] See for example, Walter Kaiser, who uses holiness as a central theme for Old Testament ethics (Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., Toward Old Testament Ethics [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983]). Holiness is a central theme, but it is a means to living life in the land with God, not an end.

Have you checked out the new book on Ralph Winter, WCIU’s founder? If you’re curious about the life of our founder and how WCIU got started, it’s a great, quick book to read for that. Here’s an excerpt from one review:

Harold Fickett’s recent work “The Ralph D. Winter Story:” is a fantastic primer into the abiding impact of the founder of the USCWM and WCIU. It’s slender 180 pages are quickly and enjoyably read and filled with insights into not only Winter’s life, but also the American evangelical milieu during the same time period. Weaving interesting anecdotes and narrative, it succeeds in outlining Winter’s life and demonstrating his key contributions to the Church.

Read the rest of the review here.

You can also purchase the book here.

Part 2: Summary of Legal Material: The Blessing and the Curse

This is the second part of a five-part blog for WCIDJ involving the use of the Old Testament’s legal material in transformational development. Today, we are summarizing the blocks of legal material in Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy, concentrating on the appended blessings and curses. We then notice an important similarity between them.

Here are summaries of the blessing and curse passages at the end of the Pentateuch’s main legal sections.

A) Exodus 23:20-31. The bulk of the legal material in Exodus, called the “Book of the Covenant,” is in Exodus 20:1-23:21. After the “Ten Words” in Exodus 20, we find laws dealing with everything from the celebration of religious festivals (23:14-19) to what to do with an ox that gores someone (21:28-32).^[1]  At the end of this block of material is the following passage:

20 “See, I am sending an angel ahead of you to guard you along the way and to bring you to the place I have prepared. 21 Pay attention to him and listen to what he says. Do not rebel against him; he will not forgive your rebellion, since my Name is in him. 22 If you listen carefully to what he says and do all that I say, I will be an enemy to your enemies and will oppose those who oppose you. 23 My angel will go ahead of you and bring you into the land of the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Canaanites, Hivites and Jebusites, and I will wipe them out. 24 Do not bow down before their gods or worship them or follow their practices. You must demolish them and break their sacred stones to pieces. 25 Worship the LORD your God, and his blessing will be on your food and water. I will take away sickness from among you, 26 and none will miscarry or be barren in your land. I will give you a full life span. 27 “I will send my terror ahead of you and throw into confusion every nation you encounter. I will make all your enemies turn their backs and run. 28 I will send the hornet ahead of you to drive the Hivites, Canaanites and Hittites out of your way. 29 But I will not drive them out in a single year, because the land would become desolate and the wild animals too numerous for you. 30 Little by little I will drive them out before you, until you have increased enough to take possession of the land. 31 “I will establish your borders from the Red Sea to the Sea of the Philistines, and from the desert to the River. I will hand over to you the people who live in the land and you will drive them out before you.” Exodus 23:20-31

At the end of the Book of the Covenant is the obligation of the LORD to Israel as obedient covenant partners. 1) God will fight against Israel’s enemies; 2) God will bless food and water and grant fertility and long life; 3) God will drive out the inhabitants of the Promised Land and Israel will inherit it. ^[2]

B) Deuteronomy 28-30. Deuteronomy 5-27 starts with a passage that reads:

1 Moses summoned all Israel and said: Hear, O Israel, the decrees and laws I declare in your hearing today. Learn them and be sure to follow them. 2 The LORD our God made a covenant with us at Horeb. 3 It was not with our fathers that the LORD made this covenant, but with us, with all of us who are alive here today. (Deut 5:1-3; NIV)

Deuteronomy is depicted as a renewal of the covenant with the generation of Israel that survived the wilderness wanderings.^[3] It is a sermon by Moses that updates the material found in earlier blocks of legal material as Israel enters the Promised Land. This is interspersed with new laws, such as laws concerning kings and prophets (17-18), how to deal with Israelites who become like the nations they are dispossessing (13), and how to deal with the nations in the land of Canaan that they are dispossessing as opposed to nations far away with which they battle (20).

In much more developed form; the large block of legal material is followed by instructions for a ceremony of blessings and cursings that the tribes of Israel are to perform when they enter the land (Deut 27:11-26).^[4]  This is followed by an elaborate pronouncing of blessing on obedience and even more elaborate pronouncement of curse on disobedience (Deut 28-29). This is followed in Deut 30 by a promise of restoration to the land when Israel repents. The section of blessings and cursings concludes with the following two verses.

19 This day I call the heavens and the earth as witnesses against you that I have set before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life, so that you and your children may live 20 and that you may love the LORD your God, listen to his voice, and hold fast to him. For the LORD is your life, and he will give you many years in the land he swore to give to your fathers, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

This, in my reading is the goal of the legal material in Deuteronomy, for the people of Israel to enjoy a prosperous and long life in the land that the LORD swore to give to Israel’s first ancestors, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
C) Leviticus 26. Leviticus 26 is a pronouncement of blessing for obedience or cursing for disobedience concerning the legal stipulations found in the so-called “Holiness Code” in Leviticus 17-25. Most interesting regarding Leviticus 17-25 is the intermixing of what later interpreters have called moral, ceremonial and civil law. At the end of this legal material is a blessing for obedience (26:1-13) and a curse for disobedience (26:14-39). The last few verses are a promise of forgiveness and remembrance of the repentant, even after Israel falls victim to God’s curse (26:40-44).

What all three bodies of legal material have is an appended blessing for obedience, and in the case of Deuteronomy and Leviticus, a curse for disobedience. After disobedience there is a promise of renewed relationship between God and Israel after Israel is humbled by his punishment and repents.^[5]

Return next week when we briefly discuss the “good” that the law is trying to achieve in the life of Israel.

Endnotes

1. [back to post] An interesting feature of these blocks of legal material is that they are not divided into moral, civil and ceremonial. This organization is a heuristic device used to get a handle on the Old Testament material, but seems to be alien to the material itself.
2. [back to post] Admittedly, God driving out the previous inhabitants of the Promised Land is a problem for a number of ethicists. The Pentateuch reflects upon this dilemma and provides a response (Genesis 15:12-16; Deuteronomy 9:1-6; 20:16-18). The nations that Israel is to dispossess are being dispossessed because of their wickedness.
3. [back to post] There has been discussion regarding Deuteronomy being modeled after Late Bronze Age Hittite suzerain-vassal Treaties. For a recent discussion, see Richard Hess, Israelite Religions: An Archaeological and Biblical Survey (Grand Rapids, Mich/ Nottingham, England: Baker/Apollos, 2007) 55-57. In this writer’s opinion, the elaborate curse has more in common with Neo-Assyrian treaties than the more gentle Hittite treaties. The problem with such discussions is that in the scribal traditions of the ANE, we find a conservatism in which old forms endure, and rather than borrowing from Hittite or Neo-Assyrian treaty forms, Deuteronomy may be drawing on more indigenous forms found in a cultural milieu similar to that of the Hittites and the Neo-Assyrians.
4. [back to post] The blessings are not spelled out, but the cursings are.
5. [back to post] It seems that Leviticus comes short of promising a return to the land, as we see in Deuteronomy.